Latest Advances in Print Media: November 2011

Tuesday, November 22, 2011

Readership and Popularity of Magazine

Readership and Popularity of Magazines

Readership and Popularity of Magazine

Readership and popularity are not necessarily identical. A large readership might be one of the indicators of popularity, though not the only indicator. While readership relates to an activity, popularity relates to a positive feeling, of liking and of enjoying what one reads. But who is a ‘reader’ in the first place? Is a ‘reader’ one who has merely ‘seen’ a magazine, as market researchers assume when they conduct National Readership Surveys (NRS)? Then there are what might be termed ‘primary readers’ and ‘secondary readers’ or even ‘tertiary readers’.

Primary readers are those who read every piece in the magazine with attention and care, and are not distracted by other activities.

Secondary readers are those who read magazines while they are watching television, listening to the radio or to the audio-recorder, looking after children, answering telephones or doorbells, etc.

For a third group of readers, magazine reading is an incidental superficial activity carried out while changing nappies, laying the table, cooking for the family, washing clothes, etc.

A further complication arises because most magazine readers are selective in what they choose to read. And what they select to read may not sometimes be to their liking.

Measuring popularity is as slippery an exercise as the attempt by marketing agencies to measure ‘readership’. Such attempts can at best provide only ‘guestimates’ rather than accurate statistical data. But since such guessing exercises are presented in statistical terms and in convincing graphics, the impression propagated (by the media primarily) is that ‘scientific’ surveys have been conducted.

See Also :

Print Media and Communication	Freedom of Press - The right to Publish and Privacy
Communication and Print media	Council Guides to Journalistic Ethics
Introduction to Print Media	Censorship in the Press and Media
Developments in Print Media	Media Laws
Contribution of News Papers	Press Ownership and Monopoly
Contribution of Magazines	Media Organisations and News Agencies
Press Commissions and Councils	The Mass Media
The Power of Press	Functions of Mass Media
History of Indian Journalism	Theories of the Press or Media
Press Censorship under the Emergency	Code of Ethics for Journalists
News Values in Journalism	Readership and Popularity of Magazine
Magazine genres-Types of Magazine

Code of Ethics for Journalists

A Code of Ethics for Indian Journalists

Code of Ethics for Indian Journalists

Attempts to draw up a code of ethics for journalists in

India

have so far drawn a blank. Neither The Press Council nor the All India Editors’ Conference have come up with a code acceptable to the whole profession.

In 1966, the Press Council did circulate a list of guidelines to over 10,000 newspapers and Journals, for their observations, but the feedback was not promising enough. In January 1976, a Committee of 17 editors presented a Code of Ethics and an Editors Charter to parliament, but it was suspect, evolved as it was during the emergency regime. It gave a rather tall order in stating that the Press must present a truthful, comprehensive and reliable account of the events in a context which gives them meaning, project a representative picture of constituent groups in society, regard itself as a forum for comment and criticism and criticism and discharge its social responsibjlities by clarifying the goals and values of society. The All-India Small and Medium News papers’ Association had drawn up a Code of Ethics in 1975 however, it was not approved of by the general body. The Second Press Commission(1982) maintained that it would not be desirable to draw up a Code ofEthics for newspapers. It supported the Press Council’s stand that a code should be built up case by case over a period of time.

The consensus, however, appears to be that the Press should be trusted to regulate itself, and where it invades privacy, or distorts facts, or fosters communalism or fanaticism, the Press Council has powers enough to pull up the offending papers and magazines. One of the penalties suggested is the withdrawal of Government advertisements’ the other is withdrawal of accreditation to journalists. However, the Press Council has been reluctant to impose any such penalties.

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Theories of the Press or Media

Theories of the Press / Media

Communication Theory of Media and Press

Western theories of the mass media (particularly of the news media) were first propounded by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their book, Four Theories of the Press.

These theories have now come to be termed ‘normative’ in the sense that they ‘ mainly exPress ideas of how the media ougth to, or can be expected to , operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values. So, strictly speaking they are hypotheses rather than theories. These ‘theories’ were first enunciated in the United States during the height of the ‘cold –war’ against communism and the Soviet Union. They were thus part of American propaganda and only loosely based on actual practices in the media. They idealis the American practices, which are touted as being democratic and socially responsible, and deride’ Soviet’ and Communist’, practices as being ‘dictatorial’ and authoritarian’. They do not take into account the public service models of print and electronic media widely accepted in Western Europe, and in many countries of Asia and Africa.

The ‘ original ‘ four theories of the Press / media are authoritarian theory, libertarian theory, social responsibility theory, and Soviet media theory. Each of them suits particular political and economic circumstances, and focuses not so much on the relationship between the Press and readers as on the relationship between the Press and government. The major concern is with ownership and control rather than with different perspectives of Journalism or the propels right to information. Siebert, Peterson and Schramm limit there analysis to ‘ four’ theories’ three more need to be added to the original four to take account of circumstance in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The last three could be termed ‘Developmental or Alternative Theorize’ of the media.

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory the mass media, though not under the direct control of the State and the ruling classes must do their bidding. The Press and other media are expected to respect authority, to be always subordinate to established power and authority, and ,therefore, should avoid offending the majority or dominant moral, political and economic values. Journalists lack independence and freedom; their reports have to be submitted for advance censorship. This censorship is justified on the ground that the State must always take precedence over an individual’s right to freedom of expression. Such censorship is more rigidly enforced in times of war and during ‘ internal’ and ‘ external’ emergencies. It needs to be noted that both dictatorial and democratic regimes resort to such authoritarian control of the media. The strictness with which the Official Secrets Act is enforced in Britain and in India is a case in point.

Libertarian of Free Press Theory

The basis of the ‘ free Press’ theory goes back to 17^th century England when the printing Press made it possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at a comparatively low price. In contrast with the Authoritarian Theory, libertarianism is founded on the fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression. Western liberal democracies swear by this belief. The first amendment in the American constitution is an embodiment of this theory’ it flows from the individual’s right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The individual, not the State or society, is supreme, and popular will (vox poplin) is granted precedence over the power of the State. The argument is that ‘ truth’ can be arrived at only through the free expression of diverse points of view, o matter how erroneous. The great apologists of this theory were John Milton, the epic poet (in his Aeropagitica) and John Stuart Mill (in his essay, on Liberty). A free Press is seen as essential to a free society and the dignity of the individual. Moreover, the freedom to publish is often linked to the right to property, and the free market system.

In practice, however, the theory provides the prerogative of free speech only to rich and the powerful elites of a society. The marginalized groups do not have access to, and indeed , cannot afford the means or the tools of free expression. What happens on the ground is that media merchants and media monopolies (e.g. the big newspaper chains, the television companies) exploit that freedom to expand their empires. Market forces rather than publish good mould the kind of information to be purveyed. The theory thus protects media owners rather than the rights of editors and journalists, or of the public. What the theory offers, in sum is ‘power without social responsibility’.

Social Responsibility Theory

This theory can be said to have been derived from the Hutchins Report (entitled ‘ A Free and Responsibic Press: A General Report on Mass Communication: Newspapers, Radio, Motion Magazines and Books’). The Hutchins Commission on Freedom of the Press (1947) was established and financed by Henry Luce and Time Magazine at a time in the history of American Journalism when Press barons like Luce sensed that government regulations on ‘yellow journalism’ were round the corner. Moreover, the years following the Second World War witnessed the rise of the Democratic Party in the United States, the restraints on business under the New Deal, and the strengthening of the trade union movement. The American Press (which was known to be largely pro-Republican) feared that the federal Government would issue legalization to regulate the ‘freedom of the Press’, despite the First Amendment.

Robert Hutchins, the chairman of the Commission, was the Chancellor of the Chicago University at that time, and he was assisted by twelve others who were experts in different fields. The Report appeared in two volumes: the firs on newspapers, the second on the other media.

The Commission found that the free market approach to Press freedom had not met the informational and social needs of the less well of classes; in fact, it had increased the power of a single class. There was little expression of diverse views; the emergence of radio, film and television also suggested that some public control and some means of accountability had become necessary.

Thus, the theory had its roots in the views that ha media had certain obligations to society to serve its needs, rather than that of the free market. Hence the need for high professional strands; of truth, accuracy, objectivity an balance. Self-regulation and also state regulations were imperative. Public interest was a greater value than unregulated freedom of expression. So news offensive to religious and ethnic minorities, or news likely to led social violence needed to be underplayed. The Hutchins Report led to the establishment of Press Councils, the drawing up of codes of ethics, anti-monopoly legislation, and to Press subsides to small newspapers. State and Public intervention in the exercise of free expression was, therefore, considered legitimate under certain circumstances.

Soviet Media Theory

This Theory is derived from Lenin’s application of Marx and Engel’s dictum in The German Ideology that, ‘the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas’. The media are thus a means of ‘mental production’ of the ideology. Hence the need for their control by working class, that is, through the Communist Party, so that the interests of the working class rather than those of the ruling or elite class are projected. In a Socialist society, therefore, the media should be used as tools to ‘socialize’ the people; the primary functions of the media are to educate, inform, motivate and mobilize citizens, and to support ‘progressive’ movements everywhere. What is expected is ‘objective’ (or ‘scientific’) presentation of society. Censorship and restriction on the media are legitimate for the media are accountable to the State, to the public and to the Party. The public is encouraged to provide feedback, as it is only in this way that the media will be able to serve the public interest.

Development Communication Theory

The 'Four Theories Of The Press' are not full applicable to the experience of the non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa, and South America. While in most Asian and African countries, the media (especially the broadcast media) are owned ad run by the State, in Latin American countries, commercial ownership of all the mass media is the norm. A common factor in experience of the majority of the non-aligned countries is the dependence on industrialized countries for both hardware and software. Another common factor is the commitment of these nations to social and economic development on their own terms: they would like to employ the mass media as tools for 'development', for 'nation-building'. The larger national interest and the public good are of paramount importance to them. So certain freedoms need to be curbed in the interest of say national integration, and economic and social development. Hence the stress on 'development communication' and 'development journalism'. According to development theorists, journalists have the responsibility to support national governments in their efforts at eradicating illiteracy promoting family planning, promoting national integration, and increasing production and employment. The weakness in the theory is that 'development' is often equated with government propaganda.

Democratization Theory

Latin American critics (notably Paulo Freire, Reyes Matta, Luis Beltan, Diaz Bordenave and Valerio Fuenzalida) of commercialized ('commodotized’) media have come out strongly against the top-down, one way and non-participative character of contemporary mass media. Like the development theorists, they lay stress on the positive uses of the media, on the need for 'access' and the the 'right to communicate'. They insist on the need for local and community participation in media and news production. The people must speak for themselves, the argue, not through professional journalists and producers.

What is vehemently opposed also is commercial, political or bureaucratic control of the media, which exist to serve audiences, not the interests of government or commercial enterprises. The 'demassification' of the media, according to this theory, is as vital as 'democratization'. The ultimate purpose is to put the media in the hands of communities (as in people's radio) for their own 'liberation' through a process of 'conscientization'. Thus is created in Reyes Matta's words, a 'critical national audience'.

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Functions of Mass Media

Functions of Mass Media & Press

Modern Mass Media serves functions similar to those fulfilled by traditional media in some accident societies, and some developing countries today. Western medias theorists generally identify three major functions; surveillance of the environment interpretations of the information and prescription for conduct and transmission of heritage. The development and libration of empowerment functions or even the ritualistic or celebratory functions of the media fairly find mention in Euro American media theory. South American media theorists have contributed to our understandings of media for liberation while African and Asian scholars have exprod the relevance of media to nation development.

INFORMATION

Surveillance f the environment relates to information or ‘news’ about happenings in society. The mass media carry out this function by keeping us posted about the latest news in our own region and around the world. In rural societies, however, the word-of-mouth method is still the most credible means of spreading news.

Consensus: But the Mass Media cannot or should not stop at watching the horizon for us, through news bulletins or through, the advertisement of documentaries. They need and often do he pus ‘to correlate our response to the challenges and opportunities which appear on the horizon and to reach consensus on social actions.

In rural India, the panchayat meetings help the village elders to decide on the challenges and the opportunities.

The mass media help us to keep the culture and heritage of our society alive, and to transmit it to others. This is what the media should idelly do, but often don’t Folk media serve similar purpose in developing countries.

ENTERTAINMENT

A fourth function is the vital function of entertainment. Entertainment has been a legitimate function of the traditional folk media, but the mass media provide it with a vengeance. They help to pass the time and to relax with family and friends.

Symbolic function: Anthropologist of culture and communication discern. A symbolic function of the media the media provide a shared symbolic environment. George Gerber for instance , sees television as the central symbol of American culture today. Horace Newcomb and other culturalist (such as James Carey and Robert White ) perceived the media as providing a ritualistic and liminal experience.

ADVERTISING

An equally vital function is that of the mass media helping to sell goods and services through sponsorship and commercials. The commercial function has indeed been served well, perhaps too well, especially in the United States, where the networks would have to close down if the support from commercial were to dry up. At the same time it would be suicidal to let this function dominate the mass media at the expense of the other four function

India

too promotes the commercial function and through it has not allowed its representative to take over the programming of radio and television, the influence is strong. This is equally true of the Press and its dependence on advertising.

DEVELOPMENT

In the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, the mass media, which include traditional media have different function to perform. In a word, development communication i.e., communication that focuses on the information need of the poor and their socio-economic and cultural interests.

USES OF THE MEDIA

While these may be the five functions of the mass media, it does not necessarily follow that audiences go to them for the same reasons. In his book, “THE PLAY THEORY OF MASS COMMUNICATION,” William Stephenson argues that fun is both greatest impact and the greatest public of the mass media. Audience use them as a form of play, or Lila. Victor Turner, the anthropologist, believes that the media provide a ‘luminal’ ritualistic experience. James Carry, Horace Newcomb and others of the ‘culturalist’ school have developed this approach further by analyzing the television experience in terms of ‘ritual’.

So, for a good number of the audience, the mass media may be marvelous time – fillers, like listening to the radio while cooking or while driving, or reading during a long train journey. Further, some people use the media to fulfill psychological and social needs. They perhaps get vicarious enjoyment out of sex and violence in the media, and use the media to get topics for conversation at work or to solve their own problems.

Still other might seek information, merely to be well informed, or perhaps to learn how higher–status people dress and live. Or, they might watch advertisements on TV not so much to know more about product as to assure themselves that they have bought the burst product! These are the ‘uses and gratification’ of the media.

So whatever functions the media pundits say the mass media have , the people will continue to use them in the way they the people, not the pundits) like. It is in this sense that audiences are ‘active’ rather than ‘passive’ receivers.

See Also :

The Mass Media

Practices and values

The Mass Media - Practice and Values

In essence, the mass media are the tools or technologies that facilitate dissemination of information and entertainment to a vast number of consumers. They are the tools of large-scale manufacture & distribution of information and related messages. These tools ‘mediate ‘the messages; they are not the messages themselves. However, Marsall McLuhan , the media prophet, liked to proclaim that “the medium is the message,” though the title of on of his Book suggests rather then that ‘the medium is the messages.’ The media are technologies; they are also messages and massages’. They can also be looked at as industries, as cultural or entertainment industries.

While cinema, radio, television, cable, and the Press can easily mass be recognized as ‘mass media’ , it requires some stretching of the established meaning of the term to include recent technologies (sometimes termed the ‘new media’)such as pagers, cellular phones, satellites, computers, electronic mail and the Internet as ‘mass media’. More correctly, these new media may be termed ‘interactive media’ for they are not as much transmission technologies from one source to many receivers, as interactive technologies, which involve feedback, exchange and participation.

‘A mass medium’ says Wilbur Schramm, ‘is essentially a working group organized round some device for circulating the same message, at about to same time to large number of people’.; Such a definition excludes the folk media, group media, and interpersonal communication such as rumor, education and preaching where communication is not ‘mediated’ by a ‘device’. Further, the pejorative term ‘mass’(a way of looking down at people as masses’)suggests that the modern media are ‘exeperienced’ not by individuals and group in terms of their own cultures but as the part of the ‘mass’ and as ‘mass culture’ The term mass also suggest that people’s interaction with media is homogeneous, inactive and unquestioning. In communication studies today ,however the term “mass media” has come to be a useful collective phrase through it slurs over the distinctions among the various media.

As generally interpreted the “mass media” are the Press, cinemas. radio and television. But books ,magazines, pamphlets and direct mail literature and posters also need to be included in the label. They are so termed because their reach extends to vast heterogeneous masses of population living in the wide and extensive area of a country. The means they employ to communicate message to the masses are technological printing machines, records, cameras, cables, modems, computers and satellites. Their communications are thus interposed and mediated; they are not as direct or face to face as interpersonal exchanges.

The organs of the mass media are technological means of transmitting message to large numbers of people. Indeed they are very much more than that. As they are very expensive media. they have to be run by the institutions govt or well financed pvt commercial bodies They require a group of people to organize and administer , to produce , distribute and constantly maintain in working order the whole set up of, say a studio, a transmitting centre or a publishing house.

Yet another feature of the mass media is that they are founded on the idea of the mass production and mass distribution – the marks of an industrial society. Copies of Newspapers and magazines, for instance, are printed in thousands and are circulated over a vast area. But to enjoy a mass audience, the media have to cater to a taste that is not very cultured or sophisticated. What the mass media, therefore, reflect and propagate is a popular culture. The culture made popular by Hindi films in our Cities is a case in point. With the rapid expansion of television and video in cities and towns, popular culture is likely to take on new forms; the myths of our culture will find expressions in ever new ways.

But the mass media in

India

are in fact a minority media as access to them is still restricted because of poverty, low literacy levels, and familiarity with Hindi and English, the major languages used in the various media; moreover, reach is limited to populations living in metros and large cities. The folk medias in contrast, have a wide audience ; they are media close to hearts and minds of the people, suited to a poor country, and help facilate identification and participation.

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Media Organisations and News Agencies

Some Media Organizations

The Press Council of

India

(PCI).

The practice of instituting a Press Council to safeguard the interests of a free Press was first initiated by Sweden. Presently, more than 40 Countries have set up Press Councils. In India, the institution of a Press Council functioned from November 1966 to January 1. 1976, under the Indian Press Council Act 1965. But the emergency regime wound it up. The short – lived Janata regime reconstituted it in April 1979 under a new Press council Act, 1978, as it felt that the liberty of the Press needed to be upheld by the Press itself.

The Press Council of India is a statutory body, and not a voluntary organization as in the U.K. and other commonwealth Countries. It consists of 28 members, headed by a Chairman who is nominated by a committee made up of the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, the speaker of the Lok Sabha and an elected representative of the council members, of the 28 members, 13 are nominated in accordance with the procedure prescribed from among working juranlists, of whom six are editors of news papers and the other seven working journalists other than editors. Six members represent various interests is like those of the owners of big, medium, and small newspapers, and of news agencies. Besides, there are five M Ps nominated by the speaker of the Loksabha, and two from the Rajya Sabha. Representation is also provided to specialists in law, education, literature, science and culture.

This representative body has the power to warn, admonish and censure any editor or realist who flouts the standard of journalistic ethics or public taste. It has the power of a Civil Court and can, therefore, summon witnesses, inspect documents and receive evidence. Cases relation to the laws of libel, obscenity and contempt, as also the invasion of privacy can be taken up by it for adjudication. It handles about 500 complaints against newspapers and journalists every year .

The Indian Press Council has, besides, ‘not only to help newspapers and news agencies to maintain independence, but also to build up principles for maintenance of high standards of the journalistic profession with a stress on public taste , and fostering a due sense of right and responsibilities of citizenship. It is for the Press council to keep under review all developments likely to restrict the supply and dissemination of news of public interest, including the question of concentration of ownership of newspapers and news agencies, they may affect the freedom of the Press.

In June 1980, the Council decided to recommend to the central Government the need to amend the Press Council Act, 1978 so as to empower it to take penal action against defaulting newspapers ‘which are indicted or censured, for infringement of journalistic ethics. The action suggested against newspapers was cessation of Central and State Government advertisements; and against journalists and editors, the withdrawal of accreditation facilities. The Second Press Commission recommended the arming of the Press Council with power to improve penalties but Editors’ guild has not approved the move.

Audit Bureau of Circulation LTD (ABC)

The ABC is private body whose members are 252 regional and national publishers, and 203 leading advertisers, news agencies, and advertising agencies. It surveys the circulation of publication in English, Hindi and 12reginal languages, in more than 50 major Indian towns.

ABC carries out circulation surveys on a regular basis and issues ‘Certificates of Net Paid Circulation’ every six months. It has a very high reputation for reliability and impartiality, and is therefore quoted with authority. Like the NRS, ABC too is urban-oriented there are nearly ninety percent of publications that are not members of the ABC. Hardly 20 of the English weeklies, and an equal number of the Hindi dillies are enrolled as members. Yet it is contended by advertisers, that ABC covers 75 % of the Indian daily Press. The fact is that good number of members do not submit their circulation figures for verification. ‘Not received’ (NR) us a familiar feature in the auditor’s reports.

Registrar of Newspapers for India (RNI)

Established on July 1, 1956, the RNI functions as a central Government body (under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting) responsible for the compilation of a Register giving particulars like ownership and circulation of all newspapers published in

India

. Besides, it oversees the allocation of titles, newsprint, and certificates for the import of printing and allied machinery required by newspaper establishments. It also sees to the enforcement of the provisions of the Press and Registration of Books Act, and has the authority to inspect newspapers’ records and documents. It carries out frequent checks to fine out whether the newspapers registered with it are published regularly and also whether the circulation figures claimed by newspapers are credible. it compiles the Annual Report, ‘ Press in

India

’, which is major source for hard data on over – 48,000 newspaper and magazines tin the country.

Sources of News: New Agencies

A news agency, according to a UNESCO definition is “ an undertaking whose principle objective, whatever its legal from, is to gather news and news martial of which the sole purpose is to express or present fact, and to distribute this to group of news enterprises, and in exceptional circumstances to private individuals, with a view to providing them with as complete and impartial a news service as possible against payment, and under conditions compatible with business laws and usage.’ in the mid - 1990s. however, that definition of a news agency sounds rather dated, transnational agencies today are large corporations making their profits largely from the sale of financial and market data provided to clients around the world; the commercial clients far outnumber news enterprises. Further, the kind of ‘ facts‘ , they present are highly selective, of primary interstate the world of business and commerce in the West, and thus are in no way ‘ complete’ and impartial’. The Service of the agencies provided are not just text, but also relate to audio, video, photography and all kinds of data. The business of Some national agencies too has grown and expended through diversification

The major transnational news agencies continue to be ‘the big four’: Returners of Britain, AP (associated Press) of the

United States of America

, AFP (Agence France Press), and UPI (United Press International) of the

United States

, though the last has lost much of its international market since the late eighties, except in South America. Other large transitional news agencies include DPA (Deutsche Press Agentur) of

Germany

, Itar – Tass of Russia, and MENA (middle east new agency ) of

Egypt

. The major financial and business news agencies are Reuters, Dow Jones, Bollomberg Information Service and Bridege Information Systems. In early 1998, Dow Jones sold its market units to Bridge Information Systems for $ 510 Millinon. While Reuters distributes financial data to over 3,62,000 computer terminals, Dow Jones and Bridge Information Systems offer its data on equities, foreign exchange, derivatives and commodities o over 1,05,000 subscribers, Bloomberg to over 75,000 terminals.

Regional ‘news exchanges’ have been started to counter the dominance of the ‘big four’. These include OPECNA the news agency of the OPEC countries; the Non-Aligned News Agency Pool (NANAP); and Deterrin, the transnational news agency founded by both developed and developing countries IPS and operated by all participating Countries. Two new exchanges served the South American Region : the Accion De Systemas Information Nacionales (ASIN) and Agency Letinamericana de Informacio (ALAI). The Pan African News Agency (PANA) serves the African Continant , CANA, the Carribean Region, OANA, the Asia-Pacific region and PACNEWS the Pasific region. An International news agency established recently, and intrest to Indian news papers, is the IANS (India Abroad News Services) with its headquarters in New York.

On of the world’s “Alternative” news agency’s the Inter Press Service (IPS), with its headquarters in Roma. It has bureau in New Delhi, besides other Capitals of Developing Countries. IPS takes a deliderat “third world” aproch to social process and issues. It decries “Sport reporting” and even and people-oriented news, and concentrates on analytical features. Its major interest is in placing issues in their context, to offer discussions on the “why” of issues rather than the “what”, “when”, “Where”, “or”, “Who”, takes a deliberate ‘third world’ approach to social processes and issues.

There are now more than a hundred news agencies in the world. Around 90 countries have their own national news agencies while 40 countries do not have any agency at all . News agencies in 50 out of the 90 countris are directly under the control of the State , while the remaining 40 are owned and run jointly by newspapers and the media. Yet few of them are really autonomous, and totally free from Government and commercial influences.

Development of News Agencies in India

K.C.Roy, an Indian journalist during the early years of this century, set up the first Indian news agency called the Press News Bureau (PNB). S. Sadanand established a nationalistic news agency in the 1930s, known as the Free Press of India (FPI) but could not afford to keep it going for more hand a couple of years. In 1933, the United Press of India (UPI) rose out of FPI’s ashes, and proved to be a great success. Until independence, Reuters and UPI were the main sources of news for Indian newspapers.

By 1949, the Indian and Eastern Newspapers Society had started its own agency – the Press Trust of India (PTI), which purchased Reuters, while UPI still struggled on, providing little or no competition. In 1958, UPI died a slow death, leaving PTI alone in the field with a vast countrywide tele printer network, and employing many journalists and stringers.

United News of India (UNI)

Before long, however, United News of India (UNI), a competitive news agency was set up by Dr B.C.Roy and sponsored by eight national dailies. Within a decade, it could match the services of PTI in the collection and distribution of news. It now has correspondents in over 200 Indian towns and cities, and around a hundred bureaus across the nation. The various services it offers to its over a thousand subscribers in India (and 30 abroad), include UNIFIN, a finance and banking service, UNISTOCK, a service for stock exchanges, and UNISCAN, a new service fed directly into television sets. Besides, it has a national photo service and supplies computer– designed graphic in ready-to–use form on economics and other topics. UNI has started a TV wing to provide news features, news clips and documentaries to Doordarshan.

Press Trust Of India (PTI)

PTI too has expanded its services considerably, and has foreign correspondents in new York, Moscow, Kathmandu, Colombo, London and other world capitals. It employs over a thousand journalists and technical staff manning around a hundred offices in the country. Its news services have been computerized, and among the many services it offers to its subscribers are: PTI -stocks can, PTI – Stocks can Elect, PTI – MAG, Data India, and a screen–based news service called NEWSCAN. It has arrangements with Reuters, APP and other agencies for news, with AP for international photograph, and with AP–Dow Joes for international economic and financial news. PTI hgas teamed up with AAP information services of Australia, Ninon Keizal Shim bun of Japan. Antara news agency of Indonesia, and YONHAP of South Korea to from a joint venture company to gather and distribute business news on the industrialized economies of the Asia pacific. PTI is also part of a cooperative agreement amon 12 news agencies of the Asia–Pacific region for the distribution of corporate and Government Press releases. In March 1998, speculation was rife that Dow Jones would tie up with PTI to take on Reuters. At present, the Dow Jones services are provided by PTI because of Government restorations against direct distribution to Indian media houses, Dow Jones is reportedly helping PTI with technical assistance in its modernization plans. PTI also distributes the general new service of Reuters in India, but Reuters sells its screen – based business news independently to the Press and to business.

With development loans made available by the Central Government, the two national news agencies have updated technology of news reception and news distribution. Towards the end of 1978, UNI and PTI stepped into the age of satellite communication, discarding the outmoded radio – teletype system . They thus began to receive foreign agency and foreign correspondent reports via satellite, and to disseminate agency copy using net-worked computers.

Another landmark in the modernization of the news agencies has been the use of computers for prompt and in-depth analysis of the Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections since 1980. This was the first time that news agencies of any developing country had employed computers to report national election.

While the UNI and PTI have made a great impact in the distribution of national and international new in India, they have yet to tap the interest of many foreign Countries, especially of Asia. Africa and Latin Amerce in

India

affairs. Despite the soaring costs of communications today, the effort to sell Indian news to the Press. Radio and TV network around the world has yet to make a mark.

Hindi News Agencies

PTI – Bhasha and UNIVARTA are the Hindi units of the two national news agfencies . until the 1980s, two Hindi news agencies: the Hindustan Samachar and the Samachar Bharati served the Hindi Press. They were brought under one banner during the emergency for the ostensible purpose of starting a natonal news agency directly under Government sponsorship. With the lifting of the emergency however, SAMACHAR – the label under which the four agencies were merged – broke into its separate consitiuents again. For all practical purposes SAMACHAR functioned under Government control. The Janata regime saw it as ‘a deliberate design to make the news agencies serve as a tool of the ruling party.’ and so restored the status quo ante from April 14, 1978.

Hindustan Samachar, India’s first multilingual new agency, was founded by S.S Apte, as long back as 1948. It sought ‘ to educate public at large.

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